About This Tradition

The written record of Middle Eastern herbalism begins with the Ebers Papyrus (circa 1550 BCE), an Egyptian medical text containing over 700 herbal formulas. This document describes the use of garlic, frankincense, myrrh, wormwood, and many other plants that remain in use today. Ancient Mesopotamian, Assyrian, and Babylonian traditions contributed additional plant knowledge that fed into the developing systems of the region.

Persian medicine, formalized as Unani (meaning "Greek" in Arabic, reflecting its synthesis with Hippocratic humoral theory), was systematized by Ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna. His Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb), completed in 1025 CE, remained a standard medical reference in Europe and the Middle East for over six centuries. It organized herbs according to their degree of heat, cold, moisture, and dryness, providing a framework for matching plant properties to patient constitution.

The spice trade brought plants from India, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa into Middle Eastern practice, creating one of the most diverse and well-traveled materia medicas in history. Many plants now considered "Western," including lavender, chamomile, and licorice, have deep roots in Middle Eastern medical tradition. Islamic scholars during the 8th through 13th centuries preserved and expanded Greek botanical texts, often adding substantial new observations of their own.

Key Principles

• Humoral balance (mizaj): Plants are categorized by four qualities: hot, cold, wet, and dry, each in four degrees of intensity. Treatment aims to correct an imbalance in the patient's constitution using plants of opposing qualities.
• Temperament (mizaj) assessment: The practitioner evaluates the individual's baseline constitution before prescribing herbs, making this a highly individualized system rather than a disease-centered one.
• Aromatic medicine: Resins (frankincense, myrrh), aromatic woods, and fragrant herbs hold a prominent place. Fumigation and inhalation of aromatic smoke are traditional preparation methods alongside teas and decoctions.
• Culinary herbs as medicine: The line between spice and medicine is not drawn. Garlic, thyme, rosemary, sage, and cumin are used at medicinal doses for specific complaints, not only as flavoring.
• Documented pharmacopeia: Unlike many oral traditions, Middle Eastern herbalism has an unusually well-preserved written record spanning more than 3,500 years of documented plant use.

Herbs in This Tradition

• Artichoke: Traditionally used for liver and gallbladder support; documented in Egyptian and Arabic medical texts for bile stimulation
• Chamomile: Widely used across the region for digestive complaints, fevers, and inflammatory conditions; called "babunaj" in Arabic medicine
• Cinnamon: An important spice-medicine in Unani practice; traditionally used for digestive support, circulation, and as a warming carminative
• Dandelion: Used in Arabic medicine (taraxacum) for liver complaints, bile stimulation, and as a diuretic
• Dill: Documented in the Ebers Papyrus; traditionally used for digestive gas, colic, and as a carminative
• Eucalyptus: Introduced through trade routes; used in regional folk medicine for respiratory complaints and as an antiseptic
• Frankincense: Boswellia resin with documented use in ancient Egyptian, Hebrew, and Arabic medicine for fumigation, wound care, and inflammatory conditions
• Garlic: Described in the Ebers Papyrus and prescribed by Avicenna for infections, parasites, and cardiovascular support
• Ginger: A central warming herb in Unani medicine; traditionally used for digestive complaints, nausea, and as a circulatory stimulant
• Hyssop: Mentioned in biblical and Islamic texts; traditionally used for respiratory complaints, coughs, and as a cleansing herb
• Lavender: Used in Islamic medicine for headaches, anxiety, and skin conditions; also used in fumigation preparations
• Lemon Balm: Called "melissa" in Arabic texts; traditionally used for anxiety, palpitations, and digestive complaints
• Licorice: Among the most documented herbs in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian medicine; used for coughs, ulcers, and as a demulcent
• Marsh Mallow: Used in Arabic medicine as a demulcent for inflamed mucous membranes and urinary tract complaints
• Milk Thistle: Used in Arabic and Persian medicine for liver complaints; silymarin content now well-studied
• Myrrh: Among the most ancient medicinal resins; documented in Egyptian, Hebrew, and Islamic texts for wound healing, oral infections, and embalming
• Oregano: Used in regional folk medicine for respiratory complaints, digestive support, and as an antimicrobial
• Peppermint: Used across the Middle East for digestive complaints, headaches, and fevers; mint tea remains a staple hospitality drink
• Rosemary: Used in Unani medicine for circulation, memory support, and as a warming aromatic; also used in fumigation
• Rue: Referenced in Islamic medical texts and used in regional folk medicine; traditionally used for menstrual complaints and as an antispasmodic (caution: use only under practitioner guidance)
• Sage: Called "salvia" in Arabic texts; traditionally used for sore throats, excessive sweating, and as a preservative and antimicrobial
• Spearmint: Used in Arabic folk medicine for digestive complaints and as a mild cooling herb, distinct from but related to peppermint
• Thyme: Used throughout the region for respiratory complaints, coughs, and as an antimicrobial; za'atar blends incorporating thyme are both culinary and medicinal
• Turmeric: Entered Middle Eastern medicine through the spice trade; used in Unani practice for liver support and inflammatory conditions
• Wormwood: Described in the Ebers Papyrus for intestinal parasites; used in Arabic medicine for digestive complaints and fever

Related Preparations

• Decoctions (matbukh): Roots, barks, and resins simmered in water for extended periods. The standard extraction method for harder plant materials in Unani practice.
• Infusions: Aromatic herbs steeped in hot water. Used for culinary herbs like thyme, peppermint, and chamomile. Mint tea remains a daily staple across the region.
• Resin preparations: Frankincense and myrrh are burned as fumigants, dissolved in oil, or taken internally as powders. Their antimicrobial properties are now supported by research on boswellic acids and sesquiterpenes.
• Oxymel: A preparation of honey and vinegar, sometimes with herbs added, used in Unani medicine for respiratory and digestive complaints. Developed from Hippocratic Greek medicine and expanded by Arabic physicians.
• Ma'jun (electuaries): Herbal powders mixed with honey or syrup into a paste, taken in small doses. Used for complex formulas requiring multiple herbs.
• Topical oils and poultices: Aromatic herbs like lavender and rosemary infused in olive oil for skin complaints and joint pain.